Language and Cognition for the MCAT: Everything You Need to Know
Master MCAT language and cognition concepts with clear explanations of language development, thought, memory, problem solving, and practice questions.
(Note: This guide is part of our MCAT Psychology and Sociology series.)
Part 1: Introduction to language and cognition
Part 2: Language
a) Components of language
b) Language acquisition
c) Language disorders
Part 3: Cognitive Development
a) Piaget's theory of development
b) Dual-coding theory
c) Information processing model
Part 4: Cognition and Intelligence
a) Theories of intelligence
b) Attention
c) Problem-solving
Part 5: High-Yield Terms
Part 6: Passage-Based Questions and Answers
Part 7:Standalone Questions and Answers
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Part 1: Introduction to language and cognition
Our brain uses sensory information from the environment to understand the world around us. Cognition refers to the way our brain processes and interprets the information presented by our environment. This processing can be both automatic or intentional.
Language is a tool that allows us to communicate our cognitive processes with other humans. The power of language facilitates thought about objects that are not in our immediate vicinity or events that may occur in the future. However, language is complex and requires special cognitive processes to understand and process.
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Part 2: Language
a) Components of language
Language can be broadly defined as units of words that are organized according to hierarchical rules. A phoneme is the smallest unit of a language and refers to units of speech sounds. Various phonemes may combine together to form a word. Differentiating between phonemes and other naturally produced sounds is a difficult task that is achieved as children learn categorical perception.
Phonemes can be constructed to form words by following a certain morphology. In linguistics, morphology refers to units within a word that can alter its meaning, such as prefixes, suffixes, and verb tenses.
Words can be strung together to form meaningful sentences. Different orderings of words can have different meanings (or nonsensical meanings), depending on the syntax of a language. Syntax may include the grammar rules of a language, which dictate a conventional way to order parts of speech in a sentence.
While syntax provides a set of rules to create a legitimate sentence, the ability to derive meaning from a sentence depends on pragmatics. Pragmatics refers to the prior meaning and contextual knowledge that speakers of a language share. The ability to convey meaning is reliant on a shared vocabulary. Semantics, or the meanings of words, plays a critical role in relating what is shared through language to the real world.
b) Language acquisition
Language acquisition occurs rapidly during the infant and childhood years. Beginning from the early months of life, infants begin to babble. Children gradually acquire language at a slow pace until the language explosion occurs around the second year of life. During this period of time, vocabulary words are learned at a rapid pace.
There are several theories as to how language is obtained. The social interactionist theory states that language acquisition is driven by the desire of children to interact with their environment and others. This theory places brain development and social play at the center of language acquisition.
The nativist (or biological) theory states that humans have an innate ability to speak and use language. This theory centers upon a hypothesized language acquisition device, a specialized neurological pathway that allows young children to automatically acquire language by observing the world around them.
As the nativist theory of language acquisition depends on physiological development, the theory also supports the existence of a critical period for language acquisition. This critical period is typically from late infancy (e.g., 2 to 3 years old) to early adulthood (marked by the onset of puberty). After this period ends, it becomes much more difficult to learn a language, which may explain why adult language learners must make a much more conscious effort to acquire a foreign language.
The learning (or behaviorist) theory proposes that language is acquired through operant conditioning, or through a process of trial and error in which correct language is rewarded. Reinforcement from others of sounds that are most similar to the ones found in a language will encourage children to continue making similar sounds until these sounds are shaped into words. Although this theory may explain the gradual acquisition of language starting from vocabulary words and phonemes, it fails to explain the ability to create new sentence forms and structures.
Language is also essential to communicating our cognitive processes to others and allows us to explain the world around us to varying degrees of detail. The Whorfian hypothesis suggests that our perception of the world is somewhat shaped by the language we use. For instance, repeated use of pronouns within certain languages (such as English) may promote a perception of the world that is centered around individuals, whereas the exclusion of pronouns in other languages (such as Japanese) may lead speakers to have a more collectivistic view.
c) Language disorders
In normal development, speech is fully acquired by the late childhood years. When the production or comprehension of speech becomes abnormal, it is typically due to some neurological defect.
Several types of aphasia, or deficit in either language production or comprehension, may be caused by damage to certain areas of the brain. Three areas to know include:
Broca’s area: an area within the frontal lobe used for speech and the production of language.
Wernicke’s area: an area within the temporal lobe responsible for language comprehension.
The arcuate fasciculus: a structure relaying information between Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas.
Damage to Broca’s area may result in Broca’s aphasia, characterized by a reduced ability to produce language. Patients with Broca’s aphasia can only produce “broken speech” but are still able to comprehend language well.
Wernicke’s aphasia results in a reduction in language comprehension. Patients with Wernicke’s aphasia may be able to correctly pronounce words, but any formed sentences will be incomprehensible (e.g., “word salad”).
Conduction aphasia is the result of damage to the arcuate fasciculus. As neither Broca’s nor Wernicke’s areas are affected, speech comprehension and production are unaffected. Rather, conduction aphasia results in difficulty in repeating a recently heard sentence.
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Part 3: Cognitive development
There are several theories on how the brain goes about making sense of the world. Each of these theories is simply a different explanation of cognition. While it is unlikely that a single theory accurately represents our cognitive processes, together they can offer a comprehensive illustration of the tools our brain uses to understand the world around us.
Cognition is influenced by heredity, the environment, and biological factors. Genetic predispositions to cognitive disorders can influence the rate of cognitive development. Chemical exposure, illness, or trauma from the environment are associated with intellectual disabilities as well.
a) Piaget’s theory of development
The psychologist Jean Piaget organized patterns of behavior and thought into schemas. Schemas are thought patterns that may include a mental construction of an object, socialized behavior patterns, or other understood ways of interacting with the world.
As an individual develops and ages, more information is added to each of these schemas.
Piaget postulated the following methods of adaptation to schemas, or processing and modifying previously existing schemas:
Assimilation: the process of adding new information to previously held schemas. For example, because a giraffe is a living creature that is not a human or a plant, it may be classified in the “animal” schema.
Accommodation: changing existing schemas to include new information. For example, a previously existing color schema may include red, yellow, and blue. Upon seeing the color green for the first time, a child may accommodate for the color green by changing the color schema to include it as well.
According to Piaget, cognitive development occurs in four stages that correspond to four periods of childhood. These four stages include the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages.
Table 1 Piaget's stages of cognitive development.
| Stage of cognitive development | Characterized by |
|---|---|
The sensorimotor stage lasts from birth until the age of 2, and the child learns to manipulate their environment to address their physical needs. During this stage, the child exhibits primary and secondary circular reactions. These are repetitive actions (that may occur spontaneously or result in manipulating the environment) that are reinforced through reward.
The end of the sensorimotor stage is marked by the achievement of object permanence. Object permanence refers to an awareness that an object still exists when it is hidden or out of view. Infants younger than the age of 2 lack this understanding and are thus genuinely entertained by a game of hide-and-seek!
The preoperational stage lasts from the ages of 2-7 years old. It is marked by symbolic thinking (imagination), centration (inability to focus on multiple aspects of a concept at a time), and egocentrism (the inability to imagine another person’s point of view).
Children at this stage may be unable to complete the conservation task. In this task, children may be presented with two vessels filled with an equal amount of liquid. However, one vessel appears to be taller and narrower, while the second is shorter and wider.
Figure 1 A setup of the conservation task.
When asked to identify which vessel has more water, children at this stage may only refer to the height of the liquid in the vessel to make their decision. Even if the two vessels hold the same amount of liquid, they will point to the vessel with a taller fluid height!
The concrete operational stage lasts from the ages of 7-11 years old. Children at this stage of development understand the concept of conservation and are able to understand the thoughts and emotions of others. However, they require the use of symbols and tangible objects to solve problems.
The formal operational stage starts at 11 years old and is marked by the ability to perform abstract thought. Children at this stage begin to learn algebraic operations and are able to reason through hypothetical scenarios.
b) Dual-coding theory
Dual-coding theory states that the brain uses multiple cues to process and store information, including both vocabulary or linguistic words and visual memories. The redundancy in being able to recall the same information using multiple examples gives robustness to these memories and allows them to be recalled more easily.
c) Information processing model
The information processing model does a better job of illustrating how our brain utilizes sensory input. The information-processing model states that thinking requires sensory information to flow through a series of stages in order to be useful.
Figure 2 The information-processing model outlines a flow of information through different stages of memory.
In order to be useful in decision making, sensory information needs to be processed and made meaningful through context. This occurs in a short-term memory source called sensory memory.
Once the sensory information is attended to, it enters short-term memory. At this stage, the information must be rehearsed and used in some way. Situational modification, or the modification of prior decisions in order to solve a new problem, may occur. If the information is not useful or rehearsed, we will “forget” it.
Only once we have rehearsed information in short-term memory can it be stored for further retrieval in long-term memory.
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Part 4: Cognition and intelligence
Intelligence is a difficult trait to define. How do we quantify an individual’s ability to problem-solve in new situations, test their discrete knowledge in certain subject matters, or even define different forms of intelligence that an individual “should” have?
Intelligence testing is a highly controversial topic. While some intelligence tests were developed for the sole purpose of researching child development, other tests were developed to inform an individual’s outcome in life: what job prospects they would have, what colleges to attend, and so forth. As a result, these tests have become warped from their original intention. Further, several of these tests were developed with white, middle-class American boys as the benchmark. By design, children of a different race, ethnicity, culture, or socioeconomic status would be at a distinct disadvantage and would have a higher probability of being classified as “less intelligent.”
a) Theories of intelligence
The intelligence quotient (IQ) of an individual is determined through a single-sitting exam. The IQ test, established by Alfred Binet, was originally established to research child education and was not designed to measure intelligence.
The quotient, or number, is calculated through a comparison of the “mental age” of an individual compared to their chronological age.
(mental age / chronological age) * 100 = IQ
The IQ scale follows a normal distribution with a mean of 100, meaning that 68% of humans will have IQs between 85-115.
Howard Gardner proposed the idea of multiple intelligence, or that humans can be intelligent in different ways. He defined 7 types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Some people can be more intelligent than others in some of the intelligences. It can often be difficult to assess these individual intelligences.
However, it appears that performance on various intelligence assessments is positively correlated. The high performance of some individuals across all types of intelligences suggests that there may be some additional factor that accounts for the amount of intelligence an individual has. Spearman suggested that this was a general intelligence, or G factor. It is worth noting that the existence of the G factor has not been proven, and it is difficult to assess.
Further, it is important to note that an individual’s intelligence appears to be highly influenced by genetic and environmental factors. The achievement of certain cognitive milestones can also be highly influenced by the local culture and values. The values dictated by local culture can affect how young children are raised, and thus the forms of behaviors or activities children are encouraged to engage in.
In addition to stable forms of intelligence, our knowledge base and critical reasoning waxes and wanes as we age. This results in fluctuations in intelligence across a person’s lifespan.
Fluid intelligence refers to problem-solving skills and critical thinking. This type of intelligence peaks in early adulthood and remains stable until old age.
Crystallized intelligence refers to concrete facts, skills, and knowledge. It peaks in the elderly years (around 60 to 70 years of age), then declines.
b) Attention
Attention is the ability to focus on individual aspects of sensory information that are arriving at the brain. We need to be attentive to certain elements of the environment in order to make specific decisions and accomplish tasks.
Selective attention refers to the ability to attend to a single aspect of an incoming stream of sensory information. Selective attention is not an all-or-nothing barrier to information but rather an ability to not attend to certain stimuli unless they are of special interest.
The cocktail party effect illustrates this phenomenon well. For instance, you may be in a fully engrossed conversation with someone in a loud room. However, upon hearing your name spoken by someone else in the room, you will attend to it.
Divided attention refers to the ability to attend to multiple items at once, or “multitasking.” Often, the quality of attention given to each task decreases as more and more tasks are added.
Certain tasks may be easily performed under divided attention, such as washing dishes or riding a bicycle. When we perform these tasks, automatic processing allows the brain to focus on other things. In contrast, controlled (effortful) processing refers to the need to provide undivided attention in order to learn new tasks.
In addition to attention, consciousness is essential to receiving sensory information and beginning to make sense of it. Consciousness refers to the awareness an individual has of their surroundings and existence. While we experience many forms of consciousness (e.g., sleeping, dreaming, and delirium), alertness is the state of consciousness in which we are awake and able to form decisions.
c) Problem-solving
When we are conscious and alert, we are constantly faced with problems that require solving. Problem-solving requires an understanding of what the problem at hand is and finding solutions for it. When problem-solving, there are several different approaches and shortcuts we can take.
We may draw solutions from a mental set, or the set of experiences and processes we have used to solve problems in the past. However, relying solely on our mental set and failing to use imagination may lead to functional fixedness. Functional fixedness refers to a phenomenon that occurs when we are unable to see a new use for an object beyond its original purpose.
Intuition is the ability to understand a problem and answer it immediately, without the need for conscious reasoning or factual evidence to back it up. Intuition is strongly based on past experience and the types of problems we have solved before. The recognition-primed decision model provides a scientific description of how intuition leads to our decisions in the real world.
There are several approaches we may take to find new solutions to a problem.
Trial and error refers to trying many different solutions until one works, with no real methodology.
Algorithms are a set series of steps that are followed to solve a particular problem. Algorithms are guaranteed to arrive at a correct solution but may be extremely time-intensive and laborious.
Inductive reasoning, also known as bottom-up reasoning, uses specific details to find commonalities and arrive at a general conclusion for the final result.
Deductive reasoning, also known as top-down reasoning, refers to the use of general rules that become more and more specific based on previous conclusions that are drawn.
In addition to these problem-solving approaches, we also draw upon several unconscious tools that assist us in finding solutions. Heuristics are unconscious tools that we use to speed up problem-solving. They are quicker methods of problem-solving but may lead us to miss information and arrive at erroneous conclusions.
The representativeness heuristic refers to how well we can categorize items based on how they fit into a representation of a category. For instance, we may decide what occupation someone holds based on their hobbies. If they like to attend orchestra concerts and music festivals, we may assume that they are more likely to be a musician than a cattle rancher.
The availability heuristic helps us decide the likelihood of an event based on how easily we can think of similar events. For instance, if we are asked to think of whether there are more robberies in a specific area compared to another and we have seen the news about several carjackings in area A recently, we may falsely assume that area A has more robberies simply because more examples come to mind.
The base rate fallacy refers to when we use stereotyped, misleading factors instead of real statistical information to come to conclusions.
Similar to heuristics, biases are other shortcuts that can lead us to incorrect answers during problem-solving.
Confirmation bias occurs when we selectively focus on information that already fits previously existing beliefs. Similarly, we selectively reject information that does not agree with them. This results in a perpetuation of our previously held beliefs, regardless of the information to the contrary that exists.
Belief perseverance refers to the inability to acknowledge that our previously held beliefs are incorrect, even when we encounter new information that contradicts those beliefs.
The ability to problem-solve and find new solutions may change with age. Problem-solving abilities improve throughout childhood and adolescence and largely remain the same through adulthood. In late adulthood, the ability to problem-solve may be hampered by slowed retrieval of memories. (For more information on this, be sure to refer to our guide on memory and learning.)
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Part 5: High-yield terms
Cognition: the way our brain processes and interprets the information presented by our environment
Language: a tool that allows us to communicate our cognitive processes with others; composed of phonemes, syntax, pragmatics, and semantics
Language explosion: a period of time around the second year of life during which vocabulary words are learned at a rapid pace
Social interactionist theory: states that language acquisition is driven by the desire of children to interact with their environment and others
Nativist theory: states that humans have an innate ability to speak and use language; centers upon a hypothesized language acquisition device, a specialized neurological pathway that allows young children to automatically acquire language by observing the world around them
Critical period: a period of time after which it becomes much more difficult to learn a language
Learning theory: proposes that language is acquired through operant conditioning, or through a process of trial and error in which correct language is rewarded
Whorfian hypothesis: suggests that our perception of the world is somewhat shaped by the language that we use
Broca’s aphasia: type of aphasia characterized by a reduced ability to produce language
Wernicke’s aphasia: results in a reduction in language comprehension and ability to form meaningful sentences
Schemas: thought patterns that may include a mental construction of an object, socialized behavior patterns, or other understood ways of interacting with the world; new information can be assimilated or accommodated into previously existing schemas
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development: include the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages
Dual-coding theory: states that the brain uses multiple cues to process and store information, including both vocabulary or linguistic words and visual memories
Information processing model: states that thinking requires sensory information to flow through a series of stages in order to be useful
Intelligence quotient (IQ): calculated through a comparison of the “mental age” of an individual compared to their chronological age
Gardner’s multiple intelligences: includes linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal
Spearman’s G factor: a suggested additional factor that accounts for the amount of intelligence an individual has
Functional fixedness: a phenomenon that occurs when we are unable to see a new use for an object beyond its original purpose
Intuition: the ability to understand a problem and answer it immediately, without the need for conscious reasoning or factual evidence to back it up
Heuristics: unconscious tools that we use to speed up problem-solving; includes the representativeness heuristic, availability heuristic, and base rate fallacy
Biases: mental shortcuts that can lead us to incorrect answers during problem solving; include confirmation bias and belief perseverance
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Part 6: Passage-based questions and answers
A lab study was conducted in which 72 participants, of ages 9-10, were assigned to one of three experimental conditions.
In Study 1, 24 participants were presented with a series of letters for durations of 1/50th, 1/20th, 1/10th, and 1 second(s). The letters were presented on a television screen, with no other accompanying cues. Immediately after each series of letters was presented, participants were asked to recall as many letters as they could.
In Study 2, 24 participants were presented with a series of letters for 15 seconds, again on a television screen with no other cues. After each series of letters, the participants were asked to complete brain teasers for durations of 15, 20, 25, and 30 seconds. The participants were asked to recall as many letters as possible.
In Study 3, 24 participants were given 5, 10, and 15 minutes to memorize a list of words. These words were drawn from a standardized list of words previously used in other developmental studies. The participants were then asked to come in the next day and recall as many words as possible.
In addition to each of the unique tasks, participants were also asked if they were willing to participate in a sleep study. During the sleep study, participants were continuously monitored through an EEG to identify the amount of time that was spent in REM versus non-REM sleep.
THE INFORMATION IN THIS PASSAGE WAS CREATED FOR THE SOLE PURPOSE OF PRESENTING AN MCAT-STYLE PASSAGE AND SHOULD NOT BE CONSTRUED TO BE FACTUALLY TRUE.
Question 1: Which of the following statements are correct?
I. Study 1 is focused on short-term memory.
II. Study 2 is focused on short-term memory.
III. Study 1 is focused on sensory memory.
IV. Study 3 is focused on long-term memory.
A) II, III, IV
B) I, II, IV
C) II and IV only
D) II only
Question 2: According to Piaget, the cognitive development stage of these participants is characterized by their ability to:
A) Learn algebraic operation
B) Comprehend conservation
C) Exhibit centration
D) Forget object permanence
Question 3: According to the information processing model, which of the following is necessary for participants’ success with Study 2?
A) Divided attention
B) Intuition
C) Attentiveness
D) Rehearsal
Question 4: According to the information processing model, when information is not rehearsed, it may not be available in participants’:
A) Sensory memory
B) Short-term memory
C) Long-term memory
D) None of the above
Question 5: Brain teasers most likely test a participant’s:
A) Fluid intelligence
B) Crystallized intelligence
C) Heuristics
D) Functional fixedness
Answers to passage-based questions
Answer choice A is correct. Study 1 presents participants with incoming sensory information and immediately assesses their memory of the information, thereby focusing on sensory memory (Statement III). Study 2 presents participants with information but briefly delays assessment of their memory, hence relying on their short-term memory (Statement II). In Study 3, participants have a significant delay between when they are presented with information and when their memory is assessed. Study 3 thus relies on long-term memory (Statement IV). The only answer choice which contains all three of the correct statements is answer choice A.
Answer choice B is correct. According to Piaget, children of ages 9-10 were in the concrete operational stage of development, a stage in which children understand the principle of conservation (choice B is correct). Learning algebraic operation is significant to the formal operational stage (age 11+; choice A is incorrect) while exhibiting centration is characteristic of the preoperational stage (ages 2-7; choice C is incorrect). Acquiring an understanding of object permanence occurs at the end of the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2), but forgetting object permanence is not a hallmark of any stages in Piaget’s theory of development (choice D is incorrect).
Answer choice C is correct. Attentiveness allows incoming sensory information to be stored in short-term memory (choice C is correct), while rehearsal is necessary for the information to be stored in long-term memory (choice D is incorrect). Intuition refers to the ability to understand a problem and answer it immediately, which is not relevant to this memory assessment (choice B is incorrect). Divided attention refers to multitasking, which would decrease the amount of attention the participants give to the incoming sensory information and thus decrease their likelihood of success (choice A is incorrect).
Answer choice C is correct. Rehearsal is necessary for information to be retrieved from participants’ long-term memory (choice C is correct). Without rehearsal, information can still be accessed from sensory memory and short-term memory (choices A and B are incorrect), the latter of which only requires attentiveness.
Answer choice A is correct. Brain teasers utilize participants’ problem-solving skills and critical thinking, also known as fluid intelligence (choice A is correct). Crystallized intelligence refers to concrete facts, skills, and knowledge (choice B is incorrect). Heuristics are unconscious tools that we use to speed up problem-solving (choice C is incorrect). Functional fixedness is a phenomenon that occurs when we are unable to see a new use for an object beyond its original purpose (choice D is incorrect).
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Part 7: Standalone questions and answers
Question 1: Which of the following terms best describes an inability to repeat a sentence that has just been heard?
A) Broca’s aphasia
B) Conduction aphasia
C) Wernicke’s aphasia
D) Cognitive aphasia
Question 2: The end of the sensorimotor stage is marked by:
A) Babbling
B) Object permanence
C) Egocentrism
D) Circular reactions
Question 3: Which term best describes a change in an existing schema to account for new information?
A) Accommodation
B) Assimilation
C) Adaptation
D) Alteration
Question 4: Which of the following best describes the role of the language acquisition device?
A) A machine that helps infants acquire language if they are lacking vocabulary
B) A part of the brain that helps adults learn new languages
C) A theoretical pathway that allows infants to process language rules
D) A colloquialism for Broca’s area
Answers to standalone questions
1. Answer choice B is correct. Conduction aphasia occurs when the arcuate fasciculus, the bundle connecting Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas, is damaged. The connection is damaged, so they cannot communicate. Language comprehension and production are not affected, but the production of recently received language is inhibited. Broca’s aphasia occurs when Broca’s area is damaged and results in the inability to produce language (choice A is incorrect). Wernicke’s aphasia occurs when Wernicke’s area is damaged and results in the inability to comprehend language (choice C is incorrect). Cognitive aphasia is not a term on the MCAT (choice D is incorrect).
2. Answer choice B is correct. Object permanence marks the end of the sensorimotor stage, one of Piaget’s developmental stages. Babbling is not a marker of Piaget’s stages but occurs when infants are trying to learn how to speak (choice B is incorrect). Egocentrism is a hallmark of the preoperational stage, when infants cannot understand the perspectives of others (choice C is incorrect). Circular reactions are found during the sensorimotor stage. These are repetitive behaviors that infants perform because they are soothing or elicit a reaction (choice D is incorrect).
3. Answer choice A is correct. This is the definition of accommodation. Assimilation occurs when new information is classified into existing schemas (choice B is incorrect). Adaptation refers to the ability to process new information and includes both assimilation and accommodation (choice C is incorrect). Alteration of a belief can occur when an individual experiences cognitive dissonance, but is not a method of processing information into existing schemas (choice D is incorrect).
4. Answer choice C is correct. The language acquisition device is a hypothesized pathway that aids children in ascertaining the rules of a language during their early development (choice C is correct). It is hypothesized to be active during childhood and to be lost during adulthood (choice B is incorrect). It is not a physical machine or tangible object (choice A is incorrect). Broca’s area is a distinct area of the brain in the frontal lobe (choice D is incorrect).
